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Nuclear Engineering

Harnessing the Atom. Slides: Nuclear Engineering · What Is Nuclear Engineering? · The Physics of the Nucleus · Timeline of Discovery · The Manhattan Project (1942-1946) · Atoms for Peace · How a Nuclear Reactor Works · Reactor Types · Major Nuclear Accidents.

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This Shipslides page presents Nuclear Engineering as an interactive HTML presentation deck in the Engineering catalog with 32 slides. The share page keeps the uploaded deck sandboxed while exposing readable context, topics, and a slide outline for viewers and search engines.

Harnessing the Atom Key sections include: Nuclear Engineering; What Is Nuclear Engineering?; The Physics of the Nucleus; Timeline of Discovery; The Manhattan Project (1942-1946); Atoms for Peace; How a Nuclear Reactor Works; Reactor Types; Major Nuclear Accidents; Defense in Depth: Nuclear Safety Philosophy.

Key sections

  • 01Nuclear Engineering
  • 02What Is Nuclear Engineering?
  • 03The Physics of the Nucleus
  • 04Timeline of Discovery
  • 05The Manhattan Project (1942-1946)
  • 06Atoms for Peace
  • 07How a Nuclear Reactor Works
  • 08Reactor Types
  • 09Major Nuclear Accidents
  • 10Defense in Depth: Nuclear Safety Philosophy
  • 11Generation III+ Reactors
  • 12Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
  • 13Generation IV: Advanced Reactor Concepts
  • 14The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
  • 15Nuclear Waste Management
  • 16Nuclear Fusion: The Holy Grail
  • 17ITER and the Fusion Race
  • 18Nuclear Propulsion
  • 19Nuclear Medicine
  • 20Radiation Protection
  • 21Nuclear Weapons: The Shadow Side
  • 22Nuclear Power and Climate Change
  • 23The Economics of Nuclear Power
  • 24The Nuclear Renaissance

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Slide outline
  1. 01Nuclear Engineering
  2. 02What Is Nuclear Engineering?
  3. 03The Physics of the Nucleus
  4. 04Timeline of Discovery
  5. 05The Manhattan Project (1942-1946)
  6. 06Atoms for Peace
  7. 07How a Nuclear Reactor Works
  8. 08Reactor Types
  9. 09Major Nuclear Accidents
  10. 10Defense in Depth: Nuclear Safety Philosophy
  11. 11Generation III+ Reactors
  12. 12Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
  13. 13Generation IV: Advanced Reactor Concepts
  14. 14The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
  15. 15Nuclear Waste Management
  16. 16Nuclear Fusion: The Holy Grail
  17. 17ITER and the Fusion Race
  18. 18Nuclear Propulsion
  19. 19Nuclear Medicine
  20. 20Radiation Protection
  21. 21Nuclear Weapons: The Shadow Side
  22. 22Nuclear Power and Climate Change
  23. 23The Economics of Nuclear Power
  24. 24The Nuclear Renaissance
  25. 25Decommissioning: The End of Life
  26. 26Nuclear Power in Space
  27. 27Pioneers of Nuclear Engineering
  28. 28Nuclear Power Around the World
  29. 29Non-Power Applications
  30. 30Nuclear Security Challenges
  31. 31The Future of Nuclear Engineering
  32. 32The Power of the Atom
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Slide 01

Nuclear Engineering

  • Harnessing the Atom
  • From the discovery of the neutron to fusion reactors and space propulsion -- the engineering discipline that splits and fuses the building blocks of matter.
  • A comprehensive exploration in 32 slides
  • 1 / 32
Slide 02

What Is Nuclear Engineering?

  • Nuclear engineering applies the principles of nuclear physics to design systems that harness energy from atomic nuclei. It encompasses power generation, weapons, medical applications, radiation protection, and waste management.
  • "The energy produced by the breaking down of the atom is a very poor kind of thing. Anyone who expects a source of power from the transformation of these atoms is talking moonshine."
  • -- Ernest Rutherford, 1933 (one year before nuclear fission was discovered)
  • 440Operational nuclear reactors worldwide (2024)
  • ~10%Global electricity from nuclear power
  • $46BAnnual nuclear energy revenue (U.S.)
  • 2 / 32
Slide 03

The Physics of the Nucleus

  • Binding Energy
  • Einstein's E=mc2 (1905) showed mass and energy are interconvertible. The binding energy per nucleon peaks at iron-56 -- elements lighter than iron release energy through fusion, heavier elements through fission.
  • A single uranium-235 fission releases 200 MeV of energy -- about 50 million times more than burning one carbon atom in coal. One kilogram of U-235 contains the energy equivalent of 2,700 tonnes of coal.
  • Key Nuclear Reactions
  • Fission
  • A heavy nucleus (U-235, Pu-239) absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter nuclei, releasing 2-3 additional neutrons and ~200 MeV. The chain reaction sustains itself when at least one released neutron causes another fission.
  • Fusion
  • Light nuclei (deuterium + tritium) combine at temperatures above 100 million degrees Celsius, forming helium-4 and releasing 17.6 MeV per reaction. Powers the Sun, which fuses 620 million tonnes of hydrogen per second.
  • 3 / 32
Slide 04

Timeline of Discovery

  • 1896
  • Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity when uranium salts fog a photographic plate wrapped in dark paper. Marie and Pierre Curie isolate polonium and radium in 1898.
  • 1911
  • Ernest Rutherford discovers the atomic nucleus by firing alpha particles at gold foil. Most pass through; 1 in 8,000 bounces back. "It was as if you fired a 15-inch shell at tissue paper and it came back and hit you."
  • 1932
  • James Chadwick discovers the neutron at Cambridge. This electrically neutral particle can penetrate nuclei without being repelled, making fission possible.
  • 1938
  • Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in Berlin split uranium atoms. Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, exiled in Sweden, provide the theoretical explanation and coin the term "fission."
  • 1939
  • Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein write to President Roosevelt warning that Germany might develop atomic weapons. This letter leads to the Manhattan Project.
  • 4 / 32
Slide 05

The Manhattan Project (1942-1946)

  • The most consequential engineering project in history employed 125,000 people across 30 sites, cost $2 billion (about $30 billion in 2024 dollars), and produced the first nuclear weapons.
  • Chicago Pile-1
  • On December 2, 1942, Enrico Fermi achieved the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction beneath the squash courts at the University of Chicago. The reactor used 6 tonnes of uranium metal and 50 tonnes of uranium oxide, moderated by 385 tonnes of graphite. The control rod was literally a cadmium-plated wooden stick. Arthur Compton called James Conant: "The Italian navigator has just landed in the new world."
  • Three Secret Cities
  • Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion plants separated U-235. At peak, consumed 1/6 of U.S. electricity. Population grew from 0 to 75,000 in 2 years.
  • Hanford, Washington: Plutonium production reactors. The B Reactor produced plutonium for the Trinity test and the Nagasaki bomb.
  • Los Alamos, New Mexico: Weapons design laboratory led by J. Robert Oppenheimer. Average age of scientists: 29.
  • "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds."
  • -- J. Robert Oppenheimer, quoting the Bhagavad Gita after the Trinity test, July 16, 1945
  • 5 / 32
Slide 06

Atoms for Peace

  • After the devastation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the world sought to redirect nuclear technology toward peaceful purposes.
  • 1953
  • President Eisenhower delivers "Atoms for Peace" speech at the United Nations, proposing international cooperation on civilian nuclear technology.
  • 1954
  • The Soviet Union's Obninsk reactor becomes the first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a grid -- 5 MW of electrical power. The U.S. Atomic Energy Act is amended to allow private nuclear power development.
  • 1956
  • Calder Hall in the UK becomes the world's first commercial-scale nuclear power station (50 MW). Queen Elizabeth II opens the plant.
  • 1957
  • The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is established in Vienna with a dual mandate: promote peaceful nuclear technology and prevent weapons proliferation.
  • 1958
  • USS Nautilus, the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, crosses under the North Pole. Admiral Hyman Rickover's naval reactor program becomes the template for commercial reactor design.
  • 6 / 32
Slide 07

How a Nuclear Reactor Works

  • At its core, a nuclear power plant is a sophisticated steam engine. Fission heats water, steam turns a turbine, the turbine spins a generator.
  • Key Components
  • Fuel: Uranium oxide pellets enriched to 3-5% U-235, stacked in zirconium alloy tubes (fuel rods). A single pellet (~7g) produces as much energy as 1 tonne of coal.
  • Moderator: Water (light or heavy) or graphite slows neutrons from 20,000 km/s to 2.2 km/s, increasing their chance of causing fission by 1,000x.
  • Control Rods: Boron, cadmium, or hafnium rods absorb neutrons to regulate the chain reaction. Fully inserted = shutdown.
  • Coolant: Water, gas, or liquid metal carries heat from the core to steam generators.
  • Containment: Reinforced concrete and steel structures designed to withstand internal pressure, external impacts, and seismic events.
  • Criticality and Control
  • The Multiplication Factor (k)
  • k = 1: Critical -- chain reaction sustains itself at constant power. This is normal operation.
  • k 1: Supercritical -- power increasing. Operators carefully adjust k to change power levels.
  • Delayed Neutrons
  • About 0.65% of fission neutrons are emitted seconds to minutes after fission (from fission product decay). This tiny fraction makes reactor control possible -- without them, power changes would occur in microseconds, far too fast for any control system.
  • 7 / 32
Slide 08

Reactor Types

  • Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
  • The most common type: 303 of 440 operating reactors. Water under ~155 bar pressure (keeps it liquid at 315C) cools the core and moderates neutrons. A secondary loop generates steam. Designed by Westinghouse for the USS Nautilus. Typical output: 1,000-1,750 MWe. Examples: Vogtle Units 3-4 (Georgia, U.S.), the first new U.S. reactors in 30 years.
  • Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
  • Water boils directly in the reactor core -- simpler design, no steam generator, but radioactive steam reaches the turbine. 63 units operating. Designed by General Electric. The Fukushima Daiichi reactors were BWRs (GE Mark I design from the 1960s).
  • CANDU (Pressurized Heavy Water)
  • Canadian design using heavy water (D2O) as moderator, allowing natural (unenriched) uranium fuel. 34 units in 7 countries. Can be refueled while running. Developed at Chalk River, Ontario, in the 1950s under the leadership of W.B. Lewis.
  • RBMK (Graphite-Moderated)
  • Soviet design using graphite moderator and water coolant. The Chernobyl reactor was an RBMK-1000. Positive void coefficient made it inherently unstable at low power. 10 units still operate in Russia (with safety upgrades). No new RBMKs have been built since Chernobyl.
  • 8 / 32
Slide 09

Major Nuclear Accidents

  • Three accidents have shaped public perception, reactor design, and regulatory frameworks for nuclear energy worldwide.
  • Three Mile Island (1979)
  • Unit 2 of the TMI plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania experienced a partial core meltdown due to a stuck-open relief valve and operator confusion. No injuries or health effects detected. Released minimal radiation (equivalent to a chest X-ray for nearby residents). However, it effectively halted new reactor construction in the U.S. for 30 years.
  • INES Level 5. Cost: $1 billion cleanup over 14 years.
  • Chernobyl (1986)
  • April 26, 1986: A flawed safety test on RBMK Reactor No. 4 caused a steam explosion and graphite fire, releasing 400 times more radiation than Hiroshima. 31 workers died within weeks. The Exclusion Zone (2,600 km2) displaced 350,000 people. WHO estimates 4,000-16,000 excess cancer deaths. The New Safe Confinement -- a 36,000-tonne arch -- was completed in 2016 at a cost of $1.5 billion.
  • INES Level 7 (maximum). Direct cause: operator error + design flaws.
  • Fukushima Daiichi (2011)
  • March 11: A magnitude 9.0 earthquake triggered a 14-meter tsunami that overwhelmed Fukushima's 5.7-meter seawall, flooding backup diesel generators. Without cooling, three reactors melted down. 154,000 evacuated; one death attributed to radiation exposure. Japan shut all 54 reactors; by 2024, only 12 have restarted. Decommissioning will take 30-40 years and cost $76 billion. Treated wastewater release into the Pacific began in August 2023 after IAEA review.
  • INES Level 7. Direct cause: beyond-design-basis natural disaster + inadequate tsunami protection.
  • 9 / 32
Slide 10

Defense in Depth: Nuclear Safety Philosophy

  • "Safety is not a gadget but a state of mind."
  • -- Eleanor Everet, nuclear safety pioneer
  • The Five Barriers
  • 1. Fuel Matrix: Ceramic UO2 pellets retain 95%+ of fission products up to 2,800C
  • 2. Fuel Cladding: Zircaloy tubes seal the fuel. Integrity maintained to ~1,200C
  • 3. Reactor Vessel: Steel pressure vessel 20-25 cm thick, designed for 40+ year service
  • 4. Containment Building: Pre-stressed concrete (1-2m thick) with steel liner. Withstands internal pressure of 3-5 atm
  • 5. Exclusion Zone: Emergency planning zone extends 10-20 km around the plant
  • Probabilistic Safety Assessment
  • Modern reactors are designed for a core damage frequency (CDF) of less than 10^-5 per reactor-year -- meaning less than 1 meltdown per 100,000 years of operation per reactor. Generation III+ designs (AP1000, EPR) target 10^-7.
  • Passive Safety
  • Post-Fukushima designs rely on natural forces (gravity, convection, compressed gas) rather than pumps and human operators. The AP1000's passive cooling system can remove decay heat for 72 hours with no operator action and no AC power.
  • 10 / 32
Slide 11

Generation III+ Reactors

  • Current state-of-the-art large reactors incorporate lessons from Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima.
  • AP1000 (Westinghouse)
  • 1,117 MWe PWR with passive safety systems. No safety-related pumps, diesels, or active systems needed for 72 hours. Simplified design: 50% fewer valves, 35% fewer pumps, 80% less safety-grade piping than Gen II plants. First units operational at Sanmen, China (2018). Vogtle Units 3-4 in Georgia (2023-2024) -- the first new U.S. reactors since the 1990s, though dramatically over budget ($35B vs. $14B estimated).
  • EPR (Framatome/EDF)
  • 1,650 MWe -- the world's most powerful reactor design. Double containment, core catcher for molten corium, 4 independent safety trains. First unit: Taishan-1, China (2018). Olkiluoto-3 in Finland started in 2023 after 18 years of construction delays. Hinkley Point C in the UK is projected at $37 billion.
  • VVER-1200 (Rosatom)
  • Russia's export flagship. 1,200 MWe with passive hydrogen recombiners and core catcher. Units operating at Novovoronezh (Russia), under construction in Turkey (Akkuyu), Egypt (El Dabaa), Bangladesh (Rooppur). Russia dominates the global reactor export market with 70%+ share of international orders.
  • APR-1400 (KHNP, South Korea)
  • 1,400 MWe with passive safety features. Four units at Barakah, UAE (the Arab world's first nuclear plant, 2020-2024). Highly competitive on cost ($24B for 4 units) and construction time. South Korea is positioning as a major reactor exporter.
  • 11 / 32
Slide 12

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

  • "Small modular reactors could be to nuclear power what the personal computer was to computing -- making it accessible, affordable, and ubiquitous."
  • -- Jose Reyes, co-founder of NuScale Power
  • What Are SMRs?
  • Reactors producing less than 300 MWe, designed for factory fabrication and truck/rail transport. Key advantages:
  • Lower upfront capital cost ($1-3B vs. $10-30B for large reactors)
  • Factory-built modules reduce construction risk and time
  • Scalable: add modules as demand grows
  • Passive safety: many designs cannot melt down by physics
  • Flexible siting: can replace retiring coal plants
  • Leading Designs
  • NuScale VOYGR
  • 77 MWe light-water SMR. First SMR to receive NRC design certification (2023). Each module is 23m tall, fully enclosed. However, the Carbon Free Power Project in Idaho was cancelled in November 2023 due to cost escalation.
  • Other Contenders
  • GE-Hitachi BWRX-300 (under construction at Darlington, Canada, for 2029). Rolls-Royce SMR (470 MWe, targeting UK sites). X-energy Xe-100 (high-temperature gas-cooled, for process heat). China's Linglong One (125 MWe, under construction in Hainan).
  • 12 / 32
Slide 13

Generation IV: Advanced Reactor Concepts

  • The Generation IV International Forum (GIF), founded in 2001, selected six advanced reactor concepts for development. These designs promise higher efficiency, less waste, and enhanced safety.
  • Molten Salt Reactor
  • Fuel dissolved in molten fluoride salt at 700C. Self-regulating: if temperature rises, fuel expands and fission rate drops. No high-pressure systems. Oak Ridge operated one (MSRE) from 1965-69. Modern startups: Terrestrial Energy (Canada), Kairos Power (U.S.), Shanghai Institute (China).
  • Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor
  • Uses liquid sodium coolant (no moderator). Fast neutrons can "breed" plutonium from U-238 and burn nuclear waste. France operated Phenix and Superphenix. Russia's BN-800 has been operating since 2016. TerraPower's Natrium (345 MWe) is under construction in Kemmerer, Wyoming.
  • High-Temperature Gas Reactor
  • Uses helium coolant and graphite moderator at 700-950C. TRISO fuel particles: uranium kernels coated in layers of carbon and silicon carbide, each a tiny containment vessel. Cannot melt even without cooling. China's HTR-PM (pebble-bed) connected to grid in 2023 -- the first Gen IV reactor in commercial operation.
  • Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor
  • Uses molten lead or lead-bismuth as coolant. High boiling point (1,749C) eliminates coolant boiling risk. Soviet submarines used lead-bismuth reactors (Alfa class). Modern: Newcleo (Italy/UK), BREST-300 (Russia, under construction).
  • Supercritical Water Reactor
  • Water above its critical point (374C, 221 bar) acts as both coolant and moderator. Thermal efficiency of 44% (vs. 33% for current PWRs). Simplifies the plant by eliminating steam generators. Still in the research phase.
  • Very High Temperature Reactor
  • Extension of HTGR to 1,000C+ outlet temperatures. Enables hydrogen production via thermochemical water splitting -- potentially replacing fossil fuels for industrial heat. Japan's HTTR has achieved 950C outlet temperature.
  • 13 / 32
Slide 14

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

  • Front End
  • Mining: ~54,000 tonnes of uranium mined annually. Kazakhstan produces 43% (world leader). Australia has the largest reserves (28%). Methods: open pit, underground, and in-situ leaching.
  • Conversion: Yellowcake (U3O8) converted to uranium hexafluoride (UF6), a gas for enrichment.
  • Enrichment: Natural uranium is 0.7% U-235; reactors need 3-5%. Gas centrifuges spin UF6 at 70,000 rpm. Weapons-grade: 90%+. The Urenco consortium and Rosatom dominate the market.
  • Fabrication: Enriched UF6 converted to UO2 ceramic pellets, loaded into fuel assemblies. A typical PWR core contains ~100 tonnes of fuel.
  • Back End
  • Spent Fuel Composition
  • After ~4 years in a reactor: 95.6% uranium, 2.9% fission products, 0.9% plutonium, 0.6% minor actinides. The 3% that is not uranium contains 97% of the radioactivity.
  • Open Cycle (U.S. approach)
  • Spent fuel stored in pools (5+ years) then dry casks. ~90,000 tonnes stored at 75 U.S. reactor sites. No permanent repository operating.
  • Closed Cycle (France approach)
  • Spent fuel reprocessed at La Hague plant. Uranium and plutonium recycled into MOX fuel. Reduces waste volume by 80%. France reprocesses 1,100 tonnes/year. High-level waste vitrified in glass logs.
  • 14 / 32
Slide 15

Nuclear Waste Management

  • "All the spent nuclear fuel ever produced in the United States would fit on a single football field stacked less than 10 meters high."
  • -- U.S. Department of Energy
  • Categories of Waste
  • Low-Level Waste (LLW): Protective clothing, filters, tools. 90% of volume, 1% of radioactivity. Disposed in near-surface facilities.
  • Intermediate-Level Waste (ILW): Reactor components, chemical sludges. Requires shielding. 7% of volume.
  • High-Level Waste (HLW): Spent fuel and reprocessing products. 3% of volume, 95% of radioactivity. Requires deep geological disposal.
  • Deep Geological Repositories
  • Finland (Onkalo): The world's first permanent repository for spent fuel, under construction since 2004 in Olkiluoto. Tunnels at 430m depth in 1.8-billion-year-old gneiss bedrock. Fuel sealed in copper canisters with bentonite clay buffer. Expected to operate from 2025 for 100 years.
  • Sweden (Forsmark): Approved in 2022. Similar KBS-3 design with copper canisters.
  • U.S. (Yucca Mountain): Designated in 1987 but defunded in 2010. Political, not technical, obstacle.
  • 15 / 32
Slide 16

Nuclear Fusion: The Holy Grail

  • Fusion promises virtually limitless clean energy with no long-lived waste and no risk of meltdown. The fuel -- deuterium from seawater and tritium bred from lithium -- could power civilization for billions of years.
  • The Challenge
  • To fuse deuterium and tritium nuclei, you must overcome their electromagnetic repulsion by heating plasma to 150 million degrees Celsius -- 10 times hotter than the Sun's core. The plasma must be confined long enough and at high enough density. The Lawson criterion (1955) defines the minimum conditions: n x T x t > 3 x 10^21 keV s/m3.
  • Two Approaches
  • Magnetic Confinement: Powerful magnets shape plasma into a torus (tokamak) or helix (stellarator). No material can contain 150M-degree plasma -- it must levitate in a magnetic bottle.
  • Inertial Confinement: Lasers or particle beams compress a fuel pellet to extreme density. The National Ignition Facility achieved fusion ignition on December 5, 2022 -- releasing 3.15 MJ from 2.05 MJ of laser input.
  • 16 / 32
Slide 17

ITER and the Fusion Race

  • ITER (Cadarache, France)
  • The world's largest fusion experiment. A tokamak with a plasma volume of 840 m3 and superconducting magnets producing 11.8 Tesla. Designed to produce 500 MW of fusion power from 50 MW input (Q=10). 35 nations collaborate. Originally estimated at $5B, now projected at $22-65B. First plasma delayed from 2025 to 2035. Full deuterium-tritium operation by 2039.
  • Private Fusion Ventures
  • Commonwealth Fusion Systems (MIT spinoff): SPARC tokamak using high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnets. Claims net energy by 2025. Raised $2B.
  • TAE Technologies: Field-reversed configuration using hydrogen-boron fuel (no neutrons). Founded 1998, $1.2B raised.
  • Helion Energy: Pulsed non-ignition fusion. $500M from Sam Altman. Power purchase agreement with Microsoft.
  • General Fusion: Magnetized target fusion using mechanical pistons. $300M raised.
  • Tokamak Energy (UK): Compact spherical tokamak with HTS magnets.
  • Total private fusion investment exceeded $6 billion by 2024.
  • 17 / 32
Slide 18

Nuclear Propulsion

  • Nuclear reactors power vessels and spacecraft where energy density and endurance are critical.
  • Naval Reactors
  • Over 700 naval reactors have been built, accumulating 12,000+ reactor-years of operation with zero radiation-related casualties. The U.S. Navy operates ~100 nuclear-powered ships. A Nimitz-class aircraft carrier's two A4W reactors provide 550 MW thermal, enough to run 25 years without refueling. Admiral Hyman Rickover's insistence on engineering rigor created the safest reactor program in history.
  • Nuclear Icebreakers
  • Russia's Arktika-class icebreakers (75,000 HP) are the only surface vessels that can reach the North Pole year-round. The new Arktika (2020) can break through 2.8 meters of ice. Russia operates 7 nuclear icebreakers and has 3 more under construction -- critical infrastructure for the Northern Sea Route.
  • Space Nuclear Propulsion
  • NASA's NERVA program (1955-73) tested nuclear thermal rockets achieving specific impulse of 841 seconds -- twice that of chemical rockets. Project cancelled after budget cuts. NASA and DARPA's DRACO program (2023) aims to demonstrate a nuclear thermal propulsion system by 2027. Could halve Mars transit time to 4 months.
  • Radioisotope Power
  • Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) use Pu-238 decay heat. Powered Voyager 1 and 2 (launched 1977, still operating 14 billion miles from Earth), Curiosity and Perseverance Mars rovers, and New Horizons (Pluto flyby, 2015). A single RTG produces ~300 watts for decades.
  • 18 / 32
Slide 19

Nuclear Medicine

  • Every year, over 40 million nuclear medicine procedures are performed worldwide -- more people benefit from nuclear technology through medicine than through electricity.
  • Diagnostic Imaging
  • Technetium-99m
  • The workhorse of nuclear medicine. Used in 80% of diagnostic nuclear procedures (~30 million/year). Emits 140 keV gamma rays, ideal for detection. 6-hour half-life minimizes patient dose. Produced in aging research reactors; supply crises in 2009-10 prompted investment in alternative production methods (cyclotrons, linear accelerators).
  • PET Scanning
  • Uses positron-emitting isotopes (F-18, C-11, Ga-68). FDG-PET detects cancer by imaging glucose metabolism. PET/CT and PET/MRI combine functional and anatomical data. 5,000+ PET scanners installed globally.
  • Therapeutic Applications
  • Radiation Therapy
  • External beam (linear accelerators) and brachytherapy (implanted sources) treat 50% of all cancer patients. Proton therapy offers precision targeting with fewer side effects -- 40+ proton centers in the U.S. Carbon ion therapy at facilities in Japan and Germany targets radioresistant tumors.
  • Targeted Radionuclide Therapy
  • Lutetium-177 (Pluvicto, approved 2022) treats metastatic prostate cancer by attaching to PSMA receptors. Iodine-131 has treated thyroid cancer since the 1940s. Actinium-225, an alpha emitter, shows promise for leukemia -- but global supply is only 2 Ci/year (mostly from Oak Ridge thorium-229 decay).
  • 19 / 32
Slide 20

Radiation Protection

  • Types of Ionizing Radiation
  • Alpha particles: Helium nuclei. Stopped by paper or skin. Dangerous if inhaled/ingested (polonium-210 killed Alexander Litvinenko in 2006).
  • Beta particles: Electrons. Stopped by aluminum sheet or plastic. Used in medical treatments (Y-90 microspheres for liver cancer).
  • Gamma rays: High-energy photons. Penetrate deeply; require lead or concrete shielding.
  • Neutrons: Uncharged, highly penetrating. Shielded by hydrogen-rich materials (water, polyethylene, concrete).
  • Dose Limits and Context
  • Putting Dose in Perspective
  • Natural background: 2.4 mSv/year (global average)
  • Chest X-ray: 0.02 mSv
  • CT scan (abdomen): 10 mSv
  • Nuclear worker limit: 20 mSv/year (ICRP)
  • Living near a nuclear plant: 0.01 mSv/year
  • Acute dose causing radiation sickness: >1,000 mSv
  • Lethal dose (50% fatality): ~4,000 mSv
  • Banana: 0.0001 mSv (potassium-40)
  • "The ALARA principle: radiation exposure should be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable, with economic and social factors taken into account."
  • -- International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
  • 20 / 32
Slide 21

Nuclear Weapons: The Shadow Side

  • The same physics that powers cities can destroy them. The entanglement of civilian and military nuclear technology has shaped international relations since 1945.
  • Global Arsenal (2024)
  • Russia: ~5,580 warheads (1,710 deployed)
  • United States: ~5,044 warheads (1,670 deployed)
  • China: ~500 warheads (growing rapidly)
  • France: ~290 warheads
  • United Kingdom: ~225 warheads
  • Pakistan: ~170, India: ~172, Israel: ~90 (undeclared)
  • North Korea: ~50 warheads
  • Peak: ~70,300 warheads in 1986. Current total: ~12,100.
  • Non-Proliferation Regime
  • The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1968) established three pillars: non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful use. 191 parties -- the most widely adhered-to arms control treaty. The IAEA conducts ~3,000 inspections per year in 185 countries.
  • Successes: South Africa, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Belarus voluntarily gave up nuclear weapons. Libya abandoned its program in 2003.
  • Failures: India, Pakistan, Israel, North Korea developed weapons outside the NPT. Iran's program remains contested.
  • 21 / 32
Slide 22

Nuclear Power and Climate Change

  • "If you are serious about climate change, you have to be serious about nuclear."
  • -- James Hansen, climate scientist, NASA (retired)
  • Carbon Emissions
  • Lifecycle CO2 (grams per kWh)
  • Coal: 820 g/kWh
  • Natural Gas: 490 g/kWh
  • Solar PV: 41 g/kWh
  • Nuclear: 12 g/kWh
  • Wind (onshore): 11 g/kWh
  • Source: IPCC AR5 median values
  • The Case For and Against
  • Arguments For
  • Dispatchable (unlike wind/solar). 92% capacity factor (highest of any source). Land-efficient: 1 km2 per TWh vs. 72 km2 for wind. France generates 65% of electricity from nuclear with the lowest-carbon grid in Europe. Nuclear has prevented an estimated 1.84 million air-pollution deaths since 1971 (NASA study, 2013).
  • Arguments Against
  • High upfront costs ($6,000-12,000/kW). Long construction times (avg. 10 years). Cost overruns endemic (Hinkley C, Vogtle, Olkiluoto). Waste disposal unsolved in most countries. Weapons proliferation risk. Public opposition remains strong in Germany, Austria, and Italy.
  • 22 / 32
Slide 23

The Economics of Nuclear Power

  • $29/MWhLCOE for existing plants (paid off)
  • $79-141/MWhLCOE for new large reactors (Lazard 2023)
  • 60-80 yearsExpected operating lifetime
  • The Cost Problem
  • Nuclear is the only energy technology that has gotten more expensive over time -- the opposite of solar and wind. Key cost drivers: first-of-a-kind engineering, regulatory compliance, construction delays, supply chain atrophy, and loss of institutional knowledge after decades of non-construction. South Korea and China build for $2,000-4,000/kW; the West pays $8,000-15,000/kW.
  • The Value Proposition
  • Nuclear's value increases in high-renewable grids: it provides firm baseload power when wind and solar are unavailable. A 2023 MIT study found that in a deeply decarbonized grid, nuclear could reduce total system costs by 62% compared to 100% renewables. Operating costs are low ($13-20/MWh) and fuel is a small fraction of total cost (unlike gas plants). License extensions to 80 years make existing plants extremely economical.
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Slide 24

The Nuclear Renaissance

  • After decades of stagnation in the West, nuclear energy is experiencing renewed interest driven by climate urgency, energy security concerns, and AI data center demand.
  • Recent Momentum
  • COP28 (December 2023): 22 countries pledged to triple nuclear capacity by 2050.
  • Microsoft: Signed PPA with Constellation Energy to restart Three Mile Island Unit 1 (2028) for AI data center power.
  • Google, Amazon: Invested in SMR developers for clean data center power.
  • Japan: Restarting reactors; new policy supports reactor replacement and construction.
  • Belgium: Reversed nuclear phase-out in 2023, extended reactors by 10 years.
  • France: President Macron announced plans for 6-14 new EPR2 reactors.
  • Under Construction (2024)
  • China: 24 reactors under construction -- more than any other country. 56 operating. Plans for 150 GW by 2035.
  • India: 8 reactors under construction. Indigenous PHWR and imported VVER designs.
  • Turkey (Akkuyu): First reactor in a non-nuclear-weapon state in decades.
  • Egypt (El Dabaa): 4 VVER-1200 units, Africa's first nuclear power plant.
  • UK (Hinkley Point C): Two EPRs, first new nuclear in a generation.
  • 59 reactors under construction globally in 15 countries (2024).
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Slide 25

Decommissioning: The End of Life

  • Over 200 reactors have been permanently shut down worldwide. Decommissioning them is a multi-decade, multi-billion-dollar engineering challenge.
  • Three Strategies
  • Immediate Dismantlement (DECON): Begins within years of shutdown. Preferred in the U.S. Yankee Rowe (Massachusetts) completed DECON in 2007 -- site released for unrestricted use.
  • Safe Enclosure (SAFSTOR): Reactor placed in mothball state for 40-60 years while radioactivity decays, then dismantled. Reduces worker dose and waste volume.
  • Entombment: Encase the reactor in concrete permanently. Only used for small research reactors.
  • Cost and Complexity
  • Average decommissioning cost: $500M-$1B per reactor (U.S.). The UK's Sellafield complex (reprocessing and decommissioning) will cost an estimated $155 billion over 120 years -- the UK's most expensive infrastructure project.
  • Key challenges: remote handling of activated components, contaminated concrete removal, waste characterization, and regulatory clearance surveys that must demonstrate residual radioactivity below 0.1 mSv/year.
  • Robotics and AI are increasingly used for surveying and cutting in high-radiation environments.
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Slide 26

Nuclear Power in Space

  • "Nuclear propulsion is the key to opening the solar system to human exploration."
  • -- NASA Administrator Bill Nelson, 2023
  • Kilopower / KRUSTY
  • NASA's Kilopower reactor demonstrated in 2018 (KRUSTY test). Uses a uranium-235 core the size of a paper towel roll, Stirling engines, and sodium heat pipes. Produces 1-10 kW for 10+ years. Designed for lunar and Martian surface power. Four 10-kW units could power a Mars habitat.
  • DRACO Nuclear Thermal Rocket
  • DARPA and NASA are developing a nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) system for deep space. Hydrogen propellant heated by a reactor to 2,700K provides thrust twice as efficient as chemical rockets. Flight demonstration planned for 2027. Could enable Earth-Mars transit in 100 days (vs. 7-9 months chemical).
  • RTGs: Powering the Outer Solar System
  • Beyond Mars, solar panels are impractical. RTGs using Pu-238 (half-life 87.7 years) have powered 27 NASA missions since 1961. Voyager 1's three RTGs still produce ~250 watts, 47 years after launch. Current production: ~1.5 kg Pu-238/year at Oak Ridge, restarted in 2013 after a 25-year gap.
  • Future Concepts
  • Nuclear electric propulsion (NEP) combines a reactor with ion engines for high-efficiency, long-duration thrust. DARPA's Project Orion (1958-65) proposed propelling spacecraft with nuclear explosions -- technically feasible but politically impossible. Freeman Dyson calculated it could reach Alpha Centauri in 133 years.
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Slide 27

Pioneers of Nuclear Engineering

  • Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)
  • Italian-American physicist who built the first nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1, 1942). Nobel Prize in Physics 1938 for induced radioactivity. His wife Laura later wrote that he was the last person to know all of physics. Element 100 (fermium) and Fermilab are named for him.
  • Hyman G. Rickover (1900-1986)
  • "Father of the Nuclear Navy." An obsessive, demanding admiral who oversaw the development of the naval nuclear propulsion program for 30 years. His insistence on safety standards and engineering discipline created the most reliable reactor program in history -- zero radiation-related deaths in 6,200+ reactor-years of operation.
  • Lise Meitner (1878-1968)
  • Austrian-Swedish physicist who provided the theoretical explanation for nuclear fission in 1939. Denied the Nobel Prize that went to Otto Hahn alone -- widely considered one of the most egregious Nobel omissions. Einstein called her "the German Marie Curie." Element 109 (meitnerium) honors her.
  • Alvin Weinberg (1915-2006)
  • Director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory for 18 years. Championed the pressurized water reactor and the molten salt reactor. Coined the term "Faustian bargain" for nuclear power's promise and risks. Fired in 1973 for advocating reactor safety over weapons production.
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Slide 28

Nuclear Power Around the World

  • Top Nuclear Power Producers
  • United States: 93 reactors, 775 TWh/year (19% of electricity). Largest fleet but aging (average age: 42 years).
  • France: 56 reactors, 65% of electricity. Most nuclear-dependent large economy. EDF operates all plants.
  • China: 56 operating + 24 under construction. Adding ~10 reactors/year. Will surpass France by ~2028 and the U.S. by ~2035.
  • Russia: 37 reactors. Rosatom is world's top reactor exporter with projects in 12 countries.
  • South Korea: 26 reactors, 28% of electricity. APR-1400 is internationally competitive.
  • Phase-Outs and Reversals
  • Germany's Exit
  • Shut down its last 3 reactors on April 15, 2023. Nuclear had provided 30% of electricity. Replaced largely with gas and coal, increasing emissions. The decision, made after Fukushima, is now debated as coal emissions rose in 2022-23.
  • Newcomer Countries
  • Countries planning their first nuclear plant: Poland (6 AP1000s by 2040), Philippines (evaluating SMRs), Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Morocco, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. The IAEA's Milestones Approach guides newcomers through a 10-15 year development process.
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Slide 29

Non-Power Applications

  • Nuclear technology has applications far beyond electricity -- from food safety to archaeology.
  • Food Irradiation
  • Gamma rays from Co-60 sterilize spices, kill insects in grain, and extend shelf life of fruits. Over 60 countries have approved irradiation. The WHO, FAO, and IAEA endorse it as safe. Over 500,000 tonnes of food irradiated annually.
  • Industrial Radiography
  • X-ray and gamma inspection of welds, pipelines, jet engine turbine blades, and bridges. Ir-192 sources can inspect steel up to 75mm thick in the field. Essential for oil & gas pipeline integrity.
  • Carbon Dating
  • Willard Libby's radiocarbon dating (1949, Nobel Prize 1960) uses C-14 decay (half-life 5,730 years) to date organic materials up to 50,000 years old. Revolutionized archaeology and geology.
  • Desalination
  • Nuclear reactors can provide heat and electricity for seawater desalination. Kazakhstan's BN-350 fast reactor desalinated 80,000 m3/day for 27 years (1972-99). India, Japan, and Saudi Arabia are exploring nuclear desalination for water-scarce regions.
  • Hydrogen Production
  • High-temperature reactors (>800C) can split water thermochemically without electrolysis. The sulfur-iodine cycle achieves ~50% efficiency. Japan's HTTR demonstrated hydrogen production at 950C. Could produce green hydrogen at $2/kg, competitive with natural gas reforming.
  • Sterilization
  • 40-50% of single-use medical devices are sterilized by gamma radiation from Co-60 sources. Handles 12 million m3 of products annually. Also used to sterilize male insects (Sterile Insect Technique) to combat crop pests and disease vectors like tsetse flies.
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Slide 30

Nuclear Security Challenges

  • Dirty Bombs
  • A radiological dispersal device (RDD) combines conventional explosives with radioactive material. While unlikely to cause mass casualties, contamination could render city blocks uninhabitable for months. The IAEA's Incident and Trafficking Database has recorded 3,800+ incidents of nuclear material out of regulatory control since 1993. High-risk sources: Cs-137 (medical), Co-60 (industrial), Sr-90.
  • Cybersecurity
  • Stuxnet (2010) -- the first known cyberweapon -- destroyed 1,000 centrifuges at Iran's Natanz enrichment facility by manipulating Siemens PLCs. It demonstrated that nuclear infrastructure is vulnerable to cyber attack. The NRC now requires cybersecurity plans for all U.S. reactors, and air-gapped safety systems are mandatory.
  • Wartime Risk
  • The Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine -- Europe's largest -- has been on the front line since Russia's 2022 invasion. Shelling near reactor buildings, loss of external power, and staff working under duress created unprecedented safety concerns. The IAEA stationed inspectors permanently on-site. International humanitarian law prohibits attacking nuclear facilities (Protocol I, Article 56).
  • Nuclear Forensics
  • If nuclear material is seized, forensic analysis of isotopic ratios, trace elements, and physical characteristics can identify its origin reactor or enrichment plant. The Nuclear Forensics International Technical Working Group has developed attribution capabilities that act as a deterrent against state-sponsored trafficking.
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Slide 31

The Future of Nuclear Engineering

  • Near-Term (2025-2035)
  • First SMRs in commercial operation (BWRX-300, Rolls-Royce SMR, NuScale successor)
  • China's HTR-PM fleet expansion proves Gen IV viability
  • TerraPower's Natrium sodium fast reactor demonstrates waste-burning
  • Finland's Onkalo becomes the first operating deep geological repository
  • AI-driven reactor operations and predictive maintenance
  • Nuclear-powered data centers for AI workloads
  • Long-Term (2035-2050+)
  • Commercial fusion power plants (if CFS, Helion, or ITER pathways succeed)
  • Nuclear thermal propulsion for crewed Mars missions
  • Traveling wave reactors running on depleted uranium for centuries
  • Micro-reactors for remote communities, military bases, and disaster response
  • Nuclear-powered direct air capture of CO2
  • Thorium fuel cycles reducing waste half-lives from millennia to centuries
  • "Nuclear energy is too important to abandon; the challenge is not whether we use it, but how we use it wisely."
  • -- Hans Blix, former IAEA Director General
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Slide 32

The Power of the Atom

  • From Fermi's pile of graphite bricks beneath a Chicago squash court to fusion reactors reaching for the temperature of the Sun, nuclear engineering sits at the intersection of humanity's greatest hopes and deepest fears.
  • "The unleashed power of the atom has changed everything save our modes of thinking, and we thus drift toward unparalleled catastrophes."
  • -- Albert Einstein, 1946
  • Nuclear Engineering -- A Presentation
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