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Chemistry

A grid of 118 squares, a handful of bonds, and the chemistry that builds rocks, refines copper, prints proteins, and powers everything from your batteries...

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A grid of 118 squares, a handful of bonds, and the chemistry that builds rocks, refines copper, prints proteins, and powers everything from your batteries to your breathing. Key sections include: CHEMISTRY; 118 elements. One grid.; The atom, briefly.; Three flavors of bond.; Quantitative chemistry.; Six things reactions do.; The carbon kingdom.; The chemists.; From alchemy to AlphaFold.; Speed and balance..

Key sections

  • 01CHEMISTRY
  • 02118 elements. One grid.
  • 03The atom, briefly.
  • 04Three flavors of bond.
  • 05Quantitative chemistry.
  • 06Six things reactions do.
  • 07The carbon kingdom.
  • 08The chemists.
  • 09From alchemy to AlphaFold.
  • 10Speed and balance.
  • 11Designed matter.
  • 12Life is wet chemistry.
  • 13What's hot in 2026.
  • 14Still puzzling.
  • 15Watch & read.
  • 16END · OF · DECK

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Slide outline
  1. 01CHEMISTRY
  2. 02118 elements. One grid.
  3. 03The atom, briefly.
  4. 04Three flavors of bond.
  5. 05Quantitative chemistry.
  6. 06Six things reactions do.
  7. 07The carbon kingdom.
  8. 08The chemists.
  9. 09From alchemy to AlphaFold.
  10. 10Speed and balance.
  11. 11Designed matter.
  12. 12Life is wet chemistry.
  13. 13What's hot in 2026.
  14. 14Still puzzling.
  15. 15Watch & read.
  16. 16END · OF · DECK
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Slide 01

118 elements. One grid.

  • PAGE 01 / 17 — PERIODIC TABLE
  • Mendeleev published it in 1869 with gaps for elements yet to be found. The modern table is organized by atomic number Z and electron configuration: rows are periods (n), columns are groups (similar valence).
  • 1.008
  • 2He
  • 4.003
  • 3Li
  • 6.94
  • 4Be
  • 9.01
  • 10.81
  • 12.01
  • 14.01
  • 16.00
  • 19.00
  • 10Ne
  • 20.18
  • 11Na
  • 22.99
  • 12Mg
  • 24.31
  • 13Al
  • 26.98
  • 14Si
  • 28.09
  • 15P
  • 30.97
  • 16S
  • 32.06
  • 17Cl
  • 35.45
  • 18Ar
  • 39.95
  • 19K
  • 39.10
  • 20Ca
  • 40.08
  • 21Sc
  • 44.96
  • 22Ti
  • 47.87
Slide 02

The atom, briefly.

  • PAGE 02 / 17 — ATOMIC STRUCTURE
  • Z protons in a tiny nucleus (~10⁻¹⁵ m), N neutrons alongside, Z electrons in shells around (~10⁻¹⁰ m). Mass is overwhelmingly nuclear; chemistry is overwhelmingly electronic.
  • Schrödinger's equation gives orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, ... Aufbau, Pauli, Hund. The shape of the periodic table follows directly from filling these.
  • ZAtomic number (protons)
  • AMass number (Z + N)
  • nPrincipal quantum no.
  • ℓOrbital ang. momentum
  • mℓMagnetic projection
  • msSpin ± ½
  • Orbital Shapes
  • s · p · d · f orbitals — sketches of |ψ|² boundary surfaces
Slide 03

Three flavors of bond.

  • PAGE 03 / 17 — BONDS
  • Ionic
  • Na⁺ Cl⁻
  • Electrons transfer. ΔEN > ~1.7. Lattice energy holds them in a crystal. Brittle, high-melting, conductive when molten or dissolved.
  • Covalent
  • H — H
  • Electrons shared. ΔEN < ~1.7. Discrete molecules. Polarity depends on ΔEN and geometry. Drives organic chemistry.
  • Metallic
  • Cu (s)
  • Cation lattice in a sea of delocalized electrons. Ductile, conductive, lustrous. Drude/free-electron then band theory.
  • Plus: hydrogen bonds (water, DNA), van der Waals (gecko feet, gas phase), π-stacking (graphite).
Slide 04

Quantitative chemistry.

  • PAGE 04 / 17 — KEY EQUATIONS
  • Ideal Gas Law
  • PV = nRT
  • R = 8.314 J·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹. Boyle, Charles, Avogadro combined. Holds when intermolecular forces are negligible.
  • Gibbs Free Energy
  • ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS
  • ΔG < 0 → spontaneous at constant T, P. Couples enthalpy (heat) to entropy (disorder).
  • Nernst Equation
  • E = E° − (RT/nF) ln Q
  • Cell potential vs. concentrations. F = 96,485 C/mol. The basis of every battery, every neuron's resting potential.
  • Arrhenius
  • k = A e−Ea/RT
  • Rate constants rise exponentially with T. Catalysts work by lowering Eₐ.
Slide 05

Six things reactions do.

  • PAGE 05 / 17 — REACTION TYPES
  • Synthesis
  • 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
  • Two or more reactants combine.
  • Decomposition
  • 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2
  • One compound splits.
  • Single Replacement
  • Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
  • More-active element displaces another.
  • Double Replacement
  • AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓ + NaNO3
  • Ions swap partners; often a precipitate.
  • Combustion
  • CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
  • Hydrocarbon meets oxygen, releases heat.
  • Redox
  • Cu + 2 AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
  • Electrons transfer; OIL RIG.
Slide 06

The carbon kingdom.

  • PAGE 06 / 17 — ORGANIC
  • Carbon's four valence bonds, of comparable energy in σ and π configurations, allow chains, rings, branches, and double/triple bonds — yielding the ~10⁸ catalogued organic compounds.
  • Friedrich Wöhler's 1828 synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate ended the wall between "organic" and "inorganic."
  • AlkanesCnH2n+2 · saturated
  • AlkenesC=C double bond
  • AlkynesC≡C triple bond
  • Aromaticsbenzene ring · 6π
  • Alcohols−OH
  • Carboxylic ac.−COOH
  • Amines−NH₂
  • Amides−C(O)NH−
  • Benzene
  • C6H6 — Kekulé's resonance ring (1865)
Slide 07

Slide 7

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Slide 08

The chemists.

  • PAGE 08 / 17 — KEY FIGURES
  • Antoine Lavoisier
  • 1743–94
  • Conservation of mass; named oxygen, hydrogen.
  • Dmitri Mendeleev
  • 1834–1907
  • Periodic Table; predicted Ga, Sc, Ge.
  • Marie Curie
  • 1867–1934
  • Radioactivity; isolated Po, Ra. 2 Nobels.
  • Linus Pauling
  • 1901–94
  • Nature of the chemical bond; electronegativity.
  • Dorothy Hodgkin
  • 1910–94
  • X-ray crystallography of penicillin, B12, insulin.
  • Rosalind Franklin
  • 1920–58
  • DNA Photo 51, virus structures.
  • Roald Hoffmann
  • b. 1937
  • Woodward–Hoffmann rules; orbital symmetry.
  • Frances Arnold
  • b. 1956
  • Directed evolution of enzymes. Nobel 2018.
Slide 09

From alchemy to AlphaFold.

  • PAGE 09 / 17 — TIMELINE
  • −3000Bronze metallurgy in Mesopotamia.
  • 1661Robert Boyle, The Sceptical Chymist: chemical elements as primary substances.
  • 1789Lavoisier publishes the Traité élémentaire; oxygen theory of combustion replaces phlogiston.
  • 1808John Dalton's atomic theory: integer mass ratios.
  • 1869Mendeleev's periodic table.
  • 1909Haber–Bosch ammonia synthesis — feeds half the world today.
  • 1913Niels Bohr's atom; Moseley's atomic numbers.
  • 1953Watson, Crick, Franklin, Wilkins: DNA double helix.
  • 1985Buckminsterfullerene C60 — Curl, Kroto, Smalley.
  • 2010Graphene — Geim, Novoselov; one-atom-thick carbon sheet.
  • 2020AlphaFold cracks protein folding; CRISPR Nobel; mRNA vaccines roll out.
Slide 10

Speed and balance.

  • PAGE 10 / 17 — KINETICS & EQUILIBRIA
  • Rate laws describe how reaction speed depends on concentration: rate = k[A]m[B]n. Order m+n found by experiment.
  • Equilibrium is the dynamic state where forward and reverse rates equal:
  • Keq = [C]c[D]d / [A]a[B]b
  • Le Chatelier: stress the system, it shifts to relieve the stress. Cool an exothermic reaction → more product.
  • Activation Energy
Slide 11

Designed matter.

  • PAGE 11 / 17 — MATERIALS
  • 2010Graphene
  • Single sheet of sp² carbon; 200,000 cm²/V·s electron mobility; ultimate tensile 130 GPa.
  • 1985Fullerenes
  • C60 truncated icosahedron — cages, drug delivery, photovoltaics.
  • 1991Carbon Nanotubes
  • Rolled graphene; SWCNT and MWCNT; semiconducting or metallic by chirality.
  • 1989MOFs
  • Metal–organic frameworks. Highest known surface areas (> 7,000 m²/g). Gas storage, catalysis.
  • 1986High-Tc Superconductors
  • Bednorz–Müller cuprates; YBa2Cu3O7 Tc = 92 K. Mechanism unsettled.
  • 2009Perovskite Photovoltaics
  • Hybrid organic–inorganic ABX3; lab efficiencies past 26 % in 15 years.
Slide 12

Life is wet chemistry.

  • PAGE 12 / 17 — BIOCHEMISTRY
  • Four classes of biomacromolecule: proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids. All built largely from C, H, N, O, P, S — plus a smattering of metals.
  • Proteins fold from 20 amino acids into ~50,000 distinct shapes in a human cell. Each shape, an enzyme or a structure or a signal.
  • ATP — adenosine triphosphate — is the universal energy currency: hydrolysis of one phosphoanhydride bond releases ~30.5 kJ/mol.
  • Peptide Bond
Slide 13

Slide 13

  • PAGE 13 / 17 — PULL QUOTE
  • "Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less."
  • — MARIE CURIE
Slide 14

What's hot in 2026.

  • PAGE 14 / 17 — FRONTIER
  • Generative Catalysis
  • ML-designed enzymes (David Baker's lab, RFdiffusion). Synthesis routes proposed by transformer models.
  • Solid-State Batteries
  • Sulfide and oxide electrolytes replace flammable liquid; Li-anode capacity, fast charge.
  • Direct Air Capture
  • KOH cycles, MOFs, electroswing. ~$300/tCO₂ today; targets < $100.
  • Green Ammonia
  • Electrocatalytic N2 reduction at ambient T,P — would replace Haber–Bosch's 1 % of world energy use.
  • Click & Bioorthogonal
  • Sharpless/Bertozzi 2022 Nobel. CuAAC, SPAAC. Conjugates drugs to antibodies in vivo.
  • Single-atom catalysts
  • Isolated metal atoms on supports — maximum atom efficiency, novel selectivity.
Slide 15

Still puzzling.

  • PAGE 15 / 17 — OPEN QUESTIONS
  • Q.01What is the maximum stable Z? Island of stability around Z = 114, 120, 126?
  • Q.02How does enzyme catalysis achieve 10⁸–10¹⁷-fold rate enhancements?
  • Q.03What is the mechanism of high-temperature superconductivity?
  • Q.04Can we predict crystal structures from formula alone?
  • Q.05How did chiral asymmetry — left-handed amino acids, right-handed sugars — originate on Earth?
  • Q.06How precisely can a quantum computer model molecular electronic structure beyond Hartree–Fock?
Slide 16

Watch & read.

  • PAGE 16 / 17 — GO DEEPER
  • Crash Course Chemistry — Hank Green
  • 46-episode survey from atoms through biochemistry.
  • Watch ↗
  • References
  • AtkinsPhysical Chemistry (12th ed., 2022)
  • ClaydenOrganic Chemistry (2nd ed.)
  • PaulingNature of the Chemical Bond (1939)
  • LehningerPrinciples of Biochemistry
  • IUPACGold Book — open access
Slide 17

END · OF · DECK

  • PAGE 17 / 17 — END
  • Vol. III · 03 · Chemistry — Periodic Grid Edition · 2026.05
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